White Tongue After Antibiotics: What Your Tongue Is Telling You About Your Gut
Medical Disclaimer: This article is for informational and educational purposes only and is not intended as medical advice. The information provided should not be used for diagnosing or treating a health condition or disease. If you develop severe oral symptoms, difficulty swallowing, or signs of infection after taking antibiotics, seek immediate medical attention. Always consult with your healthcare provider before stopping prescribed antibiotics or starting new supplements. Individual responses vary, and recommendations should be tailored to your specific situation by a qualified healthcare professional.
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You finished your course of antibiotics and thought you were on the road to recovery. But now you’re noticing something strange in the mirror—your tongue has a thick, white coating that wasn’t there before. You brush it, scrape it, rinse with mouthwash, but it keeps coming back. What’s going on? 😰👅
That white tongue after antibiotics isn’t just a cosmetic concern—it’s your body sending you an urgent message about what’s happening in your gut. This visible sign is often the first indication of a much larger problem brewing in your digestive system, and ignoring it could lead to months or even years of health issues. 🚨
Let’s decode what your white tongue is trying to tell you about your gut health, and more importantly, how to fix it naturally and permanently. 💚
What Causes White Tongue After Antibiotics? 🔬
A white coating on your tongue after taking antibiotics is most commonly caused by oral thrush (oral candidiasis)—a yeast overgrowth, typically from Candida albicans. But to understand why this happens, we need to look at what antibiotics do to your entire digestive ecosystem. 🦠
The Antibiotic Domino Effect
When you take antibiotics to kill harmful bacteria causing an infection, here’s the unfortunate cascade of events that often follows:
1. Beneficial Bacteria Are Destroyed 💥 Antibiotics can’t distinguish between “good” and “bad” bacteria. Broad-spectrum antibiotics can eliminate 25-50% of your gut bacterial diversity in just a few days, including the beneficial species that keep yeast in check (Dethlefsen & Relman, 2011).
2. Yeast Seizes the Opportunity 🍄 Candida yeast naturally lives in your mouth and gut in small amounts. However, beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus normally keep Candida populations under control. When antibiotics wipe out these bacterial “bodyguards,” Candida multiplies rapidly and unopposed (Noverr & Huffnagle, 2020).
3. Overgrowth Becomes Visible 👁️ As Candida overgrows in your mouth and throat, it creates that characteristic white, cottage cheese-like coating on your tongue, inner cheeks, and sometimes the roof of your mouth and throat. This visible manifestation is just the tip of the iceberg—similar overgrowth is likely happening throughout your entire digestive tract. 😱
4. Systemic Issues Develop 🌐 What starts on your tongue often extends throughout your gut, leading to:
- Intestinal Candida overgrowth
- Digestive symptoms (bloating, gas, irregular bowel movements)
- Food sensitivities and cravings (especially sugar!)
- Fatigue and brain fog
- Skin issues
- Weakened immunity
As we discussed in our article about why your body won’t bounce back, your gut health is fundamental to your body’s ability to heal and maintain balance. When antibiotics disrupt this foundation, the effects ripple throughout your entire system. 💪
Recognizing Oral Thrush: Is It Really Candida? 🔍
Before we dive into solutions, let’s make sure we’re correctly identifying the problem. Here’s what oral thrush typically looks like:
Classic Oral Thrush Symptoms:
Visual Signs: 👅
- White patches or coating on tongue, inner cheeks, gums, or roof of mouth
- Cottage cheese-like appearance that doesn’t easily wipe away
- Red, irritated tissue underneath if you do scrape off the coating
- Cracks or fissures at the corners of your mouth (angular cheilitis)
- Loss of taste or altered taste perception
Physical Symptoms:
- Burning or soreness in your mouth 🔥
- Difficulty swallowing if the infection extends to your throat
- Cotton-like feeling in your mouth
- Bad breath that doesn’t improve with brushing
- Dry mouth or increased thirst
Systemic Symptoms (If Gut Candida Is Present):
- Intense sugar and carbohydrate cravings 🍰
- Bloating and gas, especially after eating
- Brain fog and difficulty concentrating 🧠
- Fatigue that worsens after meals
- Skin rashes or fungal infections (athlete’s foot, jock itch, nail fungus)
- Vaginal yeast infections (for women)
- Mood swings and irritability
When It Might Be Something Else:
Not every white tongue is thrush. Other possibilities include:
- Geographic tongue (harmless patches that come and go)
- Leukoplakia (white patches that can’t be scraped off—see a doctor)
- Oral lichen planus (autoimmune condition)
- Dehydration or dry mouth
- Hairy tongue (harmless buildup of dead cells)
Key Differentiator: If the white coating appeared specifically after taking antibiotics and is accompanied by other symptoms like digestive issues or sugar cravings, Candida overgrowth is the most likely culprit. 🎯
The Tongue-Gut Connection: What Your Mouth Reveals 🗣️💚
Your tongue is essentially the beginning of your digestive tract, and traditional healing systems like Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda have long used tongue diagnosis to assess overall health. Modern science is now confirming what ancient wisdom knew: your tongue is a mirror of your gut. ✨
Why the Tongue Shows Gut Problems First:
1. Direct Microbial Connection The same microbiome that inhabits your gut also colonizes your mouth. When your gut microbiome is disrupted by antibiotics, your oral microbiome shifts simultaneously (Willis & Gabaldón, 2020).
2. Shared Immune System Your mouth and gut share immune system components. Inflammation and immune dysfunction in your gut often manifest first in your mouth, where tissues are more visible (Kitamoto et al., 2020).
3. Nutrient Deficiencies Show Up Tongue appearance can reflect nutrient deficiencies caused by gut malabsorption:
- Pale tongue: Iron or B12 deficiency
- Smooth, glossy tongue: B vitamin deficiencies
- Swollen tongue: Protein malnutrition or inflammation
- Coated tongue: Digestive dysfunction or bacterial/yeast overgrowth
4. Systemic Inflammation When your gut becomes inflamed and permeable (“leaky gut”) after antibiotic use, inflammatory markers circulate throughout your body, including to your oral tissues (Arimatsu et al., 2014).
The white tongue you’re seeing is your body’s early warning system—a visible sign that your gut microbiome needs urgent attention! 🚨
The Hidden Dangers of Ignoring Candida Overgrowth 😰
Many people dismiss oral thrush as a minor annoyance that will resolve on its own. Unfortunately, untreated Candida overgrowth can lead to serious long-term health consequences:
Short-Term Consequences (Weeks to Months):
Chronic Digestive Issues 💨
- Persistent bloating and gas
- Irregular bowel movements (constipation or diarrhea)
- Food intolerances that develop seemingly overnight
- Abdominal pain and cramping
As we explored in our comprehensive guide to digestive issues, these symptoms are warning signs that shouldn’t be ignored—they’re your body’s way of telling you the gut ecosystem is seriously out of balance.
Increased Sugar Cravings 🍭 Candida thrives on sugar and actually manipulates your cravings to feed itself. You may find yourself unable to resist sweets, even if you’ve never had a sweet tooth before.
Cognitive Dysfunction 🧠
- Brain fog and memory problems
- Difficulty concentrating
- Mood swings and irritability
- Anxiety or depression
Long-Term Consequences (Months to Years):
Systemic Candida Infection If left unchecked, Candida can penetrate the gut lining and spread throughout the body, affecting multiple organ systems—a condition called systemic candidiasis (particularly dangerous for immunocompromised individuals).
Chronic Inflammatory Conditions Persistent Candida overgrowth triggers continuous immune activation and inflammation, potentially contributing to:
- Autoimmune disease development or worsening
- Chronic fatigue syndrome
- Fibromyalgia
- Food allergies and sensitivities
Weakened Immune Function 🛡️ Your gut houses 70-80% of your immune system. When Candida and dysbiosis persist, your immune defenses become compromised, making you more susceptible to infections, illness, and slow healing.
Nutrient Deficiencies Candida overgrowth interferes with nutrient absorption, leading to deficiencies in:
- B vitamins (energy and nervous system)
- Iron (oxygen transport)
- Magnesium (hundreds of enzymatic processes)
- Zinc (immune function)
Mental Health Decline The gut-brain axis means that prolonged gut dysbiosis can significantly impact mental health, contributing to anxiety, depression, and even cognitive decline over time (Rea et al., 2020).
How to Heal White Tongue and Restore Gut Balance: The Complete Protocol 🌿
Now for the good news: you can absolutely restore balance to your oral and gut microbiomes! Here’s a comprehensive, step-by-step protocol:
Phase 1: Immediate Relief for Oral Thrush (Days 1-7) 👅
1. Coconut Oil Pulling 🥥
- Swish 1-2 tablespoons of coconut oil in your mouth for 10-15 minutes each morning
- Coconut oil contains caprylic acid, a natural antifungal
- Spit it out (not down the drain—it can clog pipes!)
- Do this before eating or brushing teeth
Here is my favorite coconut oil for this that can be purchased here!!!
Viva Naturals-Cold Pressed-Unrefined Organic Coconut Oil
2. Antifungal Mouth Rinses
- Salt water rinse: ½ teaspoon sea salt in warm water, rinse 2-3 times daily
- Baking soda rinse: ½ teaspoon in water, swish and spit
- Diluted apple cider vinegar: 1 tablespoon in ½ cup water (don’t swallow)
- Clove oil rinse: 2-3 drops in water (use only pharmaceutical-grade, food-safe tea tree oil)
Get my full list of products here!:
SaltWorks-Himalayan Pink Sea Salt (Recommended for their rigorous heavy metal testing!) Not affiliated with this company.
Apple Cider Vinegar (Recommended for having “The Mother”)
KUKKA- Clove Oil (Food-safe option)
3. Tongue Scraping 🪥
- Use a copper or stainless steel tongue scraper each morning
- Gently scrape from back to front 5-10 times
- This mechanically removes yeast buildup
- Clean scraper between uses
4. Probiotic Lozenges or Oral Probiotics
- Dissolve a high-quality probiotic in your mouth before swallowing
- Look for strains like Lactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus salivarius that colonize the mouth
- These beneficial bacteria compete with Candida for space
Here is my list of oral probiotics here:
OralProbio- Streptococcus Salivarius (Great for reducing strep and ear infections)
Windsor Botanicals- Dental Probiotics
5. Avoid Feeding the Yeast 🚫
- Eliminate sugar and refined carbohydrates temporarily
- Avoid alcohol and fermented foods initially (can feed yeast)
- No fruit juice or high-sugar fruits for now
- Skip bread and yeast-containing foods
Phase 2: Systemic Gut Healing (Weeks 1-8) 💚
1. Antifungal Supplements
Natural antifungals to rotate (change every 3-4 days to prevent resistance):
Caprylic Acid (from Coconut Oil) 🥥
- Dose: 1,000-2,000 mg with meals, 3 times daily
- Particularly effective against Candida
Oregano Oil
- Dose: 150-200 mg (standardized to 70-80% carvacrol) twice daily
- Powerful broad-spectrum antimicrobial
- Take with food to reduce digestive upset
Berberine
- Dose: 500 mg, 2-3 times daily before meals
- Supports healthy bacterial balance while targeting yeast
Garlic Extract 🧄
- Dose: 600-900 mg daily (allicin content)
- Natural antifungal and immune supporter
Pau D’Arco
- Dose: 500-1,000 mg, 2-3 times daily
- Traditional antifungal herb
Grapefruit Seed Extract
- Dose: 100-200 mg, 2-3 times daily
- Broad-spectrum antimicrobial
Get my full list of supplements here!:
Pure Encapsulations- Caprylic Acid
Designs For Health-Oil of Oregano
Designs For Health-Berberine Synergy
Nutricost- Pau D’Arco (Caution if you have liver disease)
Carlyle- Grapefruit Seed Extract
2. Restore Beneficial Bacteria 🦠
High-Quality Probiotics:
- At least 50-100 billion CFUs daily during treatment
- Multi-strain formula including:
- Lactobacillus species (acidophilus, rhamnosus, plantarum)
- Bifidobacterium species (bifidum, longum, breve)
- Saccharomyces boulardii (beneficial yeast that crowds out Candida)
**Top 3 probiotic supplements:**
1. Designs For Health- FloraMyces (saccharomyces boulardii probiotic) (my personal choice)
2. Designs For Health- Probiotic Synergy (Bifidobacterium longum) (popular option)
3. Vitamatic-Bacillus Coagulans (budget-friendly)
Important timing: Take probiotics 2-3 hours away from antifungal supplements for maximum effectiveness.
Consider Postbiotics: As we explored in our article about postbiotics, sometimes the beneficial metabolites produced by bacteria (postbiotics) can be even more effective than probiotics alone, especially when your gut is severely compromised. They don’t require colonization and work immediately. ✨
3. Support Gut Barrier Healing 🛠️
L-Glutamine
- Dose: 5-10 grams daily (powder mixed in water)
- Primary fuel source for intestinal cells
- Helps repair leaky gut
Zinc Carnosine
- Dose: 75 mg twice daily
- Protects and heals gut lining
Collagen or Bone Broth 🍲
- 10-20 grams collagen peptides daily
- Or 1-2 cups homemade bone broth
- Provides amino acids for gut repair
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Dose: 2-3 grams EPA/DHA daily
- Reduces gut inflammation
Get my full list of supplements for gut healing here!:
Designs for Health- GI Revive (Contains L-glutamine AND zinc carnosine + other super healers for the gut!)
Designs for Health- Whole Body Collagen
**Top 3 Fish Oil supplements:**
1. Designs for Health-OmegAvail TG1000 (my personal choice)
2. Pure Encapsulations-EPA/DHA Essentials (popular option)
3. Nutracost-Omega-3 (budget-friendly)
4. Digestive Support
Digestive Enzymes
- Take with each meal to ensure complete food breakdown
- Reduces fermentation that feeds yeast
- Choose a broad-spectrum formula
Get my all-time favorite digestive enzyme here!:
Designs For Health-Digestzymes
Betaine HCL (if low stomach acid)
- Many people develop low stomach acid after antibiotics
- Proper stomach acid prevents yeast overgrowth
- Only use under practitioner guidance
Get my personal go-to for Betaine HCL here:
Pure Encapsulations-Betaine HCl Pepsin
5. Liver and Detoxification Support 🌿
Your liver has to process the toxins released as Candida dies (die-off reaction):
Milk Thistle
- Dose: 150-300 mg standardized extract, twice daily
- Supports liver detoxification
Favorite liver supplement!:
Designs for Health- LV-GB (milk thistle/artichoke extract)
N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)
- Dose: 600-1,200 mg daily
- Supports glutathione production (master antioxidant)
**Top 3 NAC supplements:**
1. Designs For Health-NAC (my personal choice)
2. NOW-NAC (popular option)
3. Nutricost- NAC (budget-friendly)
Activated Charcoal
- Dose: 500-1,000 mg between meals (2+ hours from food/supplements)
- Binds toxins for elimination
- Use only during die-off symptoms
Favorite charcoal supplement: Swanson- Activated Charcoal
Hydration 💧
- Drink 8-10 glasses of filtered water daily
- Herbal teas (dandelion, nettle, green tea)
- Helps flush toxins
Favorite electrolyte replacement: Liquid IV-Hydration Multiplier
Can also use Pedialyte found here: Pedialyte
Phase 3: Dietary Protocol 🥗
The Anti-Candida Diet (Weeks 1-6 minimum):
Foods to AVOID: 🚫
- All sugar and sweeteners (including honey, maple syrup, agave)
- Refined grains and white flour products
- Alcohol and fermented beverages
- High-sugar fruits (grapes, bananas, mango, dried fruit)
- Yeast-containing foods (bread, nutritional yeast)
- Mushrooms (fungus family)
- Peanuts and pistachios (often contain mold)
- Processed foods and additives
Foods to EMPHASIZE: ✅
Non-Starchy Vegetables (unlimited)
- Leafy greens, broccoli, cauliflower, zucchini
- Asparagus, celery, cucumber
- Brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale 🥬
Quality Proteins
- Wild-caught fish and seafood 🐟
- Organic poultry
- Grass-fed meat
- Eggs (if tolerated)
Healthy Fats
- Coconut oil (antifungal properties)
- Avocado and avocado oil 🥑
- Extra virgin olive oil
- Grass-fed butter or ghee (if dairy-tolerant)
- Nuts and seeds (except peanuts and pistachios)
Low-Sugar Fruits (moderate amounts)
- Berries (blueberries, blackberries, raspberries) 🫐
- Green apples
- Lemons and limes
Fermented Foods (after initial 2 weeks)
- Sauerkraut, kimchi
- Coconut kefir
- Sugar-free kombucha (small amounts)
Herbs and Spices 🌿
- Garlic, ginger, turmeric
- Oregano, thyme, rosemary
- Cinnamon, cayenne
Phase 4: Lifestyle Modifications 💆♀️
1. Stress Management Chronic stress suppresses immunity and feeds Candida. Implement:
- Daily meditation or deep breathing (even 5 minutes) 🧘♀️
- Regular exercise (moderate, not excessive)
- Adequate sleep (7-9 hours)
- Time in nature 🌳
- Activities that bring joy
2. Oral Hygiene Optimization 🪥
- Use a non-fluoride, non-SLS toothpaste
- Consider an antifungal toothpaste (neem, tea tree, coconut oil-based)
- Replace your toothbrush weekly during active infection
- Disinfect your tongue scraper daily
- Avoid mouthwashes with alcohol
3. Immune System Support 💪
- Vitamin D3: 2,000-5,000 IU daily (get levels tested)
- Vitamin C: 1,000-2,000 mg daily
- Zinc: 15-30 mg daily
- Quality sleep and stress reduction
Understanding Die-Off Reactions (Herxheimer Reaction) 😓
As you implement this protocol, you might temporarily feel worse before you feel better. This is called a die-off or Herxheimer reaction, and it happens when Candida yeast die rapidly, releasing toxins into your system.
Die-Off Symptoms:
- Increased fatigue and brain fog 🧠
- Headaches
- Flu-like symptoms
- Digestive upset
- Skin breakouts
- Mood changes
- Intensified cravings
How to Minimize Die-Off:
- Start antifungals at lower doses and increase gradually 🐢
- Drink plenty of water
- Use activated charcoal between meals
- Support your liver with milk thistle and NAC
- Get adequate rest
- Consider taking epsom salt baths (magnesium supports detox)
Die-off typically lasts 3-7 days and is actually a sign the protocol is working! Push through—better days are ahead. 💚
Timeline: What to Expect 📅
Days 1-7:
- Oral thrush symptoms begin improving
- White coating becomes less thick
- May experience die-off symptoms 😓
Weeks 2-4:
- Tongue returning to normal pink color 👅
- Energy improving
- Sugar cravings decreasing
- Digestive symptoms starting to improve 💨
Weeks 5-8:
- Significant reduction in all symptoms
- Gut feeling much better
- Mental clarity returning 🧠
- Energy restored ✨
Weeks 9-12:
- Maintenance phase
- Reintroducing some foods carefully
- Continued probiotic support
- Long-term gut health established 💪
Important: Complete the full 6-8 week protocol even if symptoms resolve sooner. Candida can return if you stop treatment prematurely!
Preventing Recurrence: Long-Term Gut Health Strategies 🛡️
Once you’ve cleared the Candida overgrowth, focus on prevention:
1. Antibiotic Protection Protocol If you must take antibiotics in the future:
- Take high-dose probiotics during and after (for 4-6 weeks minimum)
- Include Saccharomyces boulardii (beneficial yeast)
- Start antifungal prevention immediately
- Maintain anti-Candida diet during antibiotic course
2. Maintain Gut Diversity 🦠
- Eat 30+ different plant foods weekly
- Include fermented foods regularly
- Rotate probiotic supplements
- Consider periodic postbiotic supplementation
3. Manage Blood Sugar 📊
- Keep refined carbohydrates minimal
- Balance meals with protein and healthy fats
- Avoid skipping meals (prevents blood sugar crashes and cravings)
4. Support Immunity 💪
- Adequate sleep consistently
- Regular stress management
- Nutrient-dense whole foods diet
- Regular exercise (but not excessive)
5. Listen to Your Body 👂 Pay attention to early warning signs:
- Changes in tongue appearance
- Return of sugar cravings
- Digestive symptoms
- Energy dips
Address issues immediately before they become major problems!
When to See a Healthcare Provider 👨⚕️
While this protocol works for most people, seek professional help if:
Immediate Medical Attention: ⚠️
- Difficulty swallowing or breathing
- High fever
- Severe pain
- White patches spreading rapidly
- Signs of dehydration
Schedule an Appointment If:
- Symptoms don’t improve within 2 weeks of treatment
- You’re immunocompromised (HIV, chemotherapy, organ transplant, chronic steroid use)
- You develop recurrent oral thrush (more than 2-3 episodes)
- You have diabetes (harder to treat Candida)
- You’re pregnant or breastfeeding
- White patches can’t be wiped away (could be leukoplakia—needs evaluation)
Consider Functional Medicine Testing:
- Comprehensive stool analysis (assess Candida levels, bacterial balance)
- Organic acids test (metabolic markers of yeast overgrowth)
- Food sensitivity testing (identify triggers)
- Nutrient deficiency panels
A functional medicine practitioner can provide personalized protocols based on your specific situation. 🎯
The Bottom Line: Your Tongue Tells Your Gut’s Story 💚
That white tongue coating that appeared after your antibiotic course isn’t just a cosmetic annoyance—it’s an urgent message from your body that your gut microbiome needs help. But here’s the empowering truth: with the right protocol, you can restore balance, eliminate Candida overgrowth, and rebuild a thriving gut ecosystem. 🌱
Key Takeaways: ✨
✅ White tongue after antibiotics usually indicates Candida (yeast) overgrowth ✅ What happens in your mouth reflects what’s happening in your gut ✅ Untreated Candida can lead to serious long-term health issues ✅ A comprehensive protocol addressing diet, supplements, and lifestyle works ✅ Healing takes 6-12 weeks but is absolutely achievable ✅ Prevention is key—protect your gut during future antibiotic use
As we’ve explored throughout our comprehensive digestive health resources, your gut health is the foundation of your overall wellbeing. That white tongue is your body’s way of showing you—literally giving you a visible window into—what’s happening internally.
Don’t ignore this important message. Take action now, follow the protocol, and restore the vibrant health that comes from a balanced, thriving gut microbiome. Your tongue—and your entire body—will thank you! 🙏✨
🌿 More Gut-Health Resources
Explore more evidence-based guides on gut health, inflammation, and functional medicine:
• 7 Signs Your Gut Needs Healing and Why Your Body Won’t Bounce Back: The Hidden Gut Health Connection
• SIBO vs. SIFO: Understanding Small Intestinal Overgrowth (And Why It Matters for Your Gut Healing)
• The Autoimmune–Gut Connection: How to Heal the Root Cause and Break the Cycle
• Healing Leaky Gut: Myths vs. Science (What Actually Works)
✅ Subscribe to the Vital Cell Healing newsletter for evidence-based functional medicine strategies, supplement protocols, and seasonal wellness tips
✅ Download my FREE Gut Health Assessment Quiz to investigate any underlying GI issues
✅ Download my Free Postbiotic Health Guide for guidance on postbiotic supplements.
✅ Download my FREE Gut Health Quick-Start Guide for guidance on common GI disorders and conditions!
✅ Join the Vital Cell Healing community for ongoing support and personalized guidance
References
Arimatsu, K., Yamada, H., Miyazawa, H., Minagawa, T., Nakajima, M., Ryder, M. I., … & Yamazaki, K. (2014). Oral pathobiont induces systemic inflammation and metabolic changes associated with alteration of gut microbiota. Scientific Reports, 4(1), 4828. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04828
Dethlefsen, L., & Relman, D. A. (2011). Incomplete recovery and individualized responses of the human distal gut microbiota to repeated antibiotic perturbation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Supplement 1), 4554-4561. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000087107
Kitamoto, S., Nagao-Kitamoto, H., Jiao, Y., Gillilland, M. G., Hayashi, A., Imai, J., … & Kamada, N. (2020). The intermucosal connection between the mouth and gut in commensal pathobiont-driven colitis. Cell, 182(2), 447-462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.048
Noverr, M. C., & Huffnagle, G. B. (2020). The microbiota hypothesis of allergic diseases. In The Microbiota in Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology (pp. 325-332). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814649-1.00036-4
Rea, K., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2020). Gut microbiota: A perspective for psychiatrists. Neuropsychobiology, 79(1), 50-62. https://doi.org/10.1159/000504495Willis, J. R., & Gabaldón, T. (2020). The human oral microbiome in health and disease: From sequences to ecosystems. Microorganisms, 8(2), 308. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020308